Only Vincent et al. Data from 5,191 children were included in the study; 2,236 lived in homes with a dog or cat, and 2,955 lived in households that did not include any animals. [16] found that those with a mobility or medical service dog reported significantly higher work/school functioning than a control group. Further, as publication bias and the file-drawer effect is an often referenced weakness of the HAI literature [22], two dissertation and thesis databases and abstracts of two conferences were searched for unpublished studies. Thoughts on limitations of animal models - ScienceDirect A more recent systematic review published by Winkle and colleagues in 2012 [9] summarized 12 published quantitative studies on both standardized and nonstandardized outcomes following mobility service dog placement (omitting guide dogs, hearing dogs, and unpublished theses). To compare methodological rigor by study design, an independent t-test was used to compare mean scores across longitudinal and cross-sectional designs. Animal models are used in experiments in the behavioural neurosciences that aim to contribute to the prevention and treatment of cognitive and affective disorders in human beings, such as anxiety and depression. In addition, null findings were reported on standardized measures of family role 3-, 6-, and 12-months after receiving a mobility service dog [15], discrimination and social inclusion 12-months after receiving a mobility service dog [34], and family and social self-concept among mobility dog users compared to a control group [37]. Using a different measure of emotional functioning, Rodriguez et al. Jane K. Yatcilla, [16] found higher emotional functioning in those with a mobility or medical service dog compared to a control group. You can learn more about some of this research, as well as the ethical and regulatory issues that are involved, by consulting online resources such as Speaking of Research. Limitations One of the main considerations in understanding the potential variability across findings is the aspect of time since assistance dog placement. Humans share common ancestry with the species most commonly studied in psychology: mice, rats, monkeys. Continued efforts are required to improve methodological rigor, conduct replicable research, and account for heterogeneity in both humans and animals to advance the state of knowledge in this field. On the other hand, Spence [34] found no improvement to a composite score of psychological health 12-months after receiving a mobility service dog. To achieve the third aim of the reviewto summarize outcomespsychosocial outcomes within each study were extracted. Limitations and Benefits of Psychological Research on Animals Many people see animal testing as a cruel and inhumane practice. Center for the Human-Animal Bond, College of Veterinary Medicine, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana, United States of America, Current address: Human-Animal Bond in Colorado, School of Social Work, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado, United States of America, Affiliation: For example, the benefits of an assistance dog for a socially isolated individual who experiences periodic anxiety and depression may be significantly different than an individual without these characteristics. Beyond the functional tasks that assistance dogs are trained for, there is growing literature describing their benefits on the psychosocial health and wellbeing of their handlers. The study of nonhuman animals has actually played a huge role in psychology, and it continues to do so today. Funding: The authors received no specific funding for this work. [32] found that participants reported worse occupational functioning 7-months after receiving a hearing dog while Davis [44] found that individuals with a mobility service dog reported worse occupational functioning compared to a control group. The most common provider organizations represented were Canine Companions for Independence (CCI; six mobility service dog studies), Paws with a Cause (four mobility service dog studies), and Hearing Dogs for Deaf People (HDDP; four hearing dog studies). The three Rs are: Reduction, Refinement . Therefore, the current literature is limited to correlational, rather than causal conclusions regarding the benefits of assistance dogs on the psychosocial health of their owners. However, other studies reported no relationship between having a mobility service dog and self-esteem via the RSES [39, 41] or other standardized measures of self-esteem [15, 28, 36]. Brought to you by Sciencing Unnecessary Cruelty Animal rights advocates argue that testing on animals is cruel and unnecessary. To examine the relationship between methodological rigor score and year of publication as well as sample size, bivariate correlations were performed. Psychology Research: Psychological Research on Animals Why is animal psychology important? The remaining studies were quasi-experimental in that they did not use randomized assignment to treatment or control groups. Assistance Dogs International (ADI) defines three types of assistance dogs, of which we use as terminology in this review: guide dogs who assist individuals with visual impairments, hearing dogs who assist individuals with hearing impairments, and service dogs who assist individuals with disabilities other than blindness or deafness [3]. They have advantages and disadvantages compared with other approaches. The disadvantage of animal research is that it lessens the value of life. Future research should specify not only ethical protocols for human subjects research, but also for animal subjects, which is often underutilized and/or underreported in AAI research [73]. The only other positive outcome was from Allen et al. Of 34 total quality of life outcomes, 9 (26%) were positive (improved or better quality of life in comparison to pre- or control conditions), 22 (65%) were null (no difference) and 3 (9%) were negative (decreased or worse quality of life in comparison to pre- or control conditions). Tissue cultures cannot develop depression, alco- holism, autism, learning disorders, memory impairments, aggressive behavior, social abnormalities, or other psychologically relevant prob- lems. Discuss the Strengths and Weaknesses of the Use of Animals for psychological Research. The five studies which found that pet owners were less depressed had, on average, many fewer participants (Mean = 401 subjects ) than the studies that found no difference in depression rates (Mean . Regarding emotional health, 7/15 (46%) outcomes were significant across group or condition. Can you really generalise results from animals to humans? What are the disadvantages of being an animal behaviorist . Of the 100 null comparisons, 43 (43%) were from published papers and 57 (57%) were from unpublished theses. Of five studies using a version of the UCLA Loneliness Scale [55] only Yarmolkevich [46] found significantly lower self-reported loneliness in those with a guide dog compared to a control group. One of the first reviews published by Modlin in 2000 [7] summarized nine published quantitative and qualitative studies on the benefits of guide dogs, hearing dogs, and mobility service dogs on their handlers (omitting unpublished theses). MEDLINE search terms and search strategy. 29 Major Pros & Cons Of Animal Testing - E&C In longitudinal studies, the first follow-up time point varied from 3- to 12-months after receiving an assistance dog. As mentioned above, a surprisingly high number of studies did not ensure that assistance dog and control groups were statistically equal across demographic and disability characteristics prior to outcome analyses. After the initial title and abstract review, articles were screened based on full text. Seven studies (26%) had sample sizes less than or equal to N = 20, all of which were longitudinal. Medical service dogs for diabetes and seizure alert/response were rarely studied [16, 35], and were assessed in conjunction with mobility service dogs rather than on their own. For general psychological health, 5/11 (45%) outcomes were significant across group or condition. Articles were extracted for information based on three aims to describe study characteristics, assess methodological rigor, and summarize outcomes. Methodological rigor also did not significantly correlate with year of publication (r = 0.327, p = 0.096) nor total sample size (r = 0.258, p = 0.194). In the case of disagreements, inclusion or exclusion was resolved by discussion and consultation with a third independent reviewer (author MO). S2 Table. Interestingly, only one included study [16] assessed outcomes from participants under the age of 18. Of 43 total social outcome comparisons, 7 (16%) were positive (improved or better social health in comparison to pre- or control conditions), 36 (84%) were null (no difference) and zero (0%) were negative (decreased or worse social health in comparison to pre- or control conditions). Animal studies in psychology. All articles were screened by two independent reviewers (authors KR and JG) using Covidence systematic review software (Veritas Health Innovation, Melbourne, Australia). Top 112 + Disadvantages of animal studies in psychology found significantly lower depression and anxiety using the POMS and GHQ-30, respectively, 6-months after receiving a hearing dog [13]. Studies on psychiatric service dogs, emotional support dogs, and pet dogs were excluded. Similarly, Crudden et al. Thorough reporting in terms of the magnitude and variability of effects observed will allow researchers to make informed comparisons across populations and interventions and conduct critically needed meta-analyses in the field. Importantly, unpublished theses had a similar average sample size as published studies, with similar power to detect effects compared to published studies. Why Kids With Pets Are Better Off | Psychology Today In the next sub-category, six studies assessed life satisfaction outcomes using Satisfaction with Life Scale [SWLS; 57]. For example, we know what the connections are between the amygdala and other brain regions, but how does activity in the amygdala affect brain functioning? A total of 254 records were screened via full text, of which 230 were excluded. The rationale for excluding qualitative studies from inclusion was to focus on outcomes using standardized measures to facilitate quantitative comparisons across studies. Limitations of Animal Tests - Humane Society International Two of the most well-known animal studies were conducted by Konrad Lorenz and Harry Harlow. In terms of emotional functioning, two studies found positive results using the SF-36 role emotional domain; Lundqvist et al. Study characteristics of N = 27 studies separated by longitudinal and cross-sectional designs, ordered by publication year. Further, the number of years spent with the assistance dog at the time of surveying was unknown for half of the cross-sectional studies [29, 37, 40, 4245]. Animal studies in psychology - American Psychological Association Advantages and Disadvantages of Animal Testing | Sciencing Disadvantages Of Experimental Research | ipl.org Human participants in these studies included those with hearing or visual impairments, diabetes, and seizure disorders. This effect may be compounded by the possibility that those who apply for an assistance dog may inherently have certain positive characteristics (e.g., stable housing, stable finances, has a familial support system) that contribute to overall psychosocial health. When human studies are presented, there is rarely discussion of the basic animal research that enabled those studies to be done. Competing interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist. APA 2023 registration is now open! Included studies assessed psychosocial outcomes via standardized measures from assistance dogs that were trained for functional tasks related to a physical disability or medical condition (omitting psychiatric service dogs or emotional support dogs). Will this monkey study, which enabled such a discovery to be made, be described? Animal Studies of Attachment: Lorenz and Harlow | Psychology - tutor2u Because of the broad inclusion criteria, the 27 studies were widely varied in terms of human and dog participants, assessment time points, statistical analyses, and standardized outcomes. Animal Studies Of Attachment: Lorenz And Harlow - Psychology Hub Future longitudinal research in this population is necessary to understand the complex psychosocial and physical roles that guide dogs play in the lives of their handlers. He received his PhD in comparative psychology from the University of California at Davis in 1982, and was a postdoctoral researcher in developmental psychobiology in the department of psychiatry at the University of Colorado Health Sciences Center. Learning and language theories.An interesting insight into the animal world DisadvantagesThe Ethics of animal testing. Discuss the Strengths and Weaknesses of the Use of Animals for The CES-D asks participants to rate how often they had experienced 20 depressive symptoms in the prior week using statements such as I thought my life had been a failure, while the POMS asks participants to rate from not at all to extremely how they feel right now using single words such as sad and unhappy. It is also possible that some standardized measures do not capture the intended effects from having an assistance dog. Of 12 total vitality comparisons, 6 (50%) were positive (improved or better vitality in comparison to pre- or control conditions), 6 (50%) were null (no difference) and zero (0%) were negative (decreased or worse vitality in comparison to pre- or control conditions). Dr. A study protocol was designed a-priori to define the search strategy, inclusion and exclusion criteria, and items for data extraction. While both reviews found mostly positive findings regarding mobility, guide, and hearing dogs effects on their handlers health and wellbeing, social interactions, and activity participation [7, 8], it was concluded that the small number of studies and methodological limitations of these studies preclude any clear conclusions [8]. Authors JG and KR independently coded 20% of the included articles to establish adequate inter-rater reliability (alpha = 0.822). The most commonly studied type of assistance dog was mobility service dogs, followed by hearing dogs. Evaluation of animal models of neurobehavioral disorders Other studies assessed outcomes from hearing dogs (7/27; 26%), guide dogs (4/27; 15%), and medical alert/response service dogs (2/27; 7%). Using a new technique, it is now possible to temporarily inactivate the amygdala in a monkey and see how other brain areas (including those that are not directly connected to the amygdala) change their activity (Grayson et al., 2016). Table 4 summarizes the social outcomes across studies within the sub-categories of general social functioning, loneliness, and social participation. Overall, most (68%) of comparisons made across studies were null in which no statistical difference was found in the outcome compared to before getting an assistance dog or compared to a control group. Although outcomes from assistance dog placement for children and adolescents have been quantified with qualitative [e.g., 6971] and observational [e.g., 72] study designs, effects on standardized measures of psychosocial wellbeing including social functioning have not been explored. Assistance dog categories (guide, hearing, mobility, and medical) were collapsed for the purposes of this review, but undoubtedly contribute to the lives of individuals with disabilities in diverse ways. The lack of guide dog-specific research is especially surprising given that guide dogs not only have the longest history of any type of assistance dog [61] but are also the most commonly placed assistance dog placed by professional facilities worldwide [2]. Discover a faster, simpler path to publishing in a high-quality journal. Of 27 studies, 19 (70%) reported outcomes a quality of life measure with a total of 13 different standardized measures used. Positive outcomes included significant effects of having an assistance dog on psychological wellbeing, emotional functioning, self-esteem, and vitality. route finding, retrieving dropped items, alerting to a seizure), the assistance dogs companionship, emotional and social support, and social facilitation effects in public may be particularly salient to improving the quality of life of individuals with disabilities [79]. The replicated measures identified in this review can serve as a basis for future researchers to collate the existing literature when making assessment choices. Still, some harms will remain, and ethically, one must weigh those harms against the potential benefits (for humans and for the animals themselves) to be obtained from the research. Even procedures as simple as drawing a blood sample or testing an animal on a cognitive task must be approved by the local IACUC before the work can begin. However, none of the four studies using the Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale [CES-D; 52] found significant differences in self-reported depression among those with a mobility service dog compared to a control group [3941] or after 4-months with a mobility service dog [28]. PLoS ONE 15(12): Other studies found increased social connectedness 3-months after receiving a mobility or hearing dog [31] and increased community integration 6, 12, 18, and 24 months after receiving a mobility service dog [14]. Therefore, future efforts should be made to publish null findings in peer-reviewed journals and to encourage scientific transparency [80]. 2016 Jul 20;91(2):453-66. Citation: Rodriguez KE, Greer J, Yatcilla JK, Beck AM, OHaire ME (2020) The effects of assistance dogs on psychosocial health and wellbeing: A systematic literature review. In addition to poor methodological reporting, many studies were restrained by statistical weaknesses. The systematic literature review was conducted according to The Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines [21]. Importantly, only a few comparisons were made in the negative direction (2%) indicating that there is limited reason to believe that acquiring an assistance dog is associated with worse functioning. Advantages & Disadvantages | a2-level-level-revision, psychology Measures of the same outcome not only can have different wording and items, but also can measure functioning over different time periods or contexts. We found that studies reported mostly psychological outcomes (74%), followed by social outcomes (67%), quality of life outcomes (70%), and vitality (26%) outcomes. Disadvantages of Animal Experimentation Ethical concerns Animals have to die for our research May be considered to be cruel Animal testing may not be acceptable regarding religious aspects Humans should not play god Animal testing can be expensive Animal experimentation may lead to the development of new diseases May be done in an excessive manner Jamie Greer, Animal Domestication: Animal domestication is when humans take animals from the wild and keep them over successive generations in controlled environments where the animals are always available to humans. How Comparative Psychologists Study Animal Behavior - Verywell Mind For example one could not look at the effects of maternal deprivation by removing infants from their mothers or conduct isolation experiment on humans in the way that has been done on other species. [15] found improvements to daily work activities 3- and 12-months after receiving mobility service dog (but not in self-care or dealing with life events). Using the Profile of Mood States Scale [POMS; 51], Guest found increased self-reported vigor 3- and 12-months after receiving a hearing dog and less fatigue 3-months after receiving a hearing dog. [15] found a significant increase in pep, energy, and feeling less worn out 3- and 6-months after receiving a mobility service dog while three studies found no relationship between the vitality domain and having a mobility service dog [17, 28] or a mobility, hearing, or medical service dog [35]. He is currently the chair of APAs Committee on Animal Research and Ethics. r/psychology How to get your children to eat more fruits and vegetables: Children will eat more fruits and vegetables if families take more time to eat meals. To assess methodological rigor, a total of 15 extracted items were sourced from methodological assessment tools including the National Institutes of Health (NIH) Study Quality Assessment Tools [24], the Consolidated Standards of Reporting Trials (CONSORT) checklist [25], the Strengthening the Reporting of Observational Studies in Epidemiology (STROBE) checklists [26], and the Specialist Unit for Review Evidence (SURE) Checklists [27]. Increased research on this topic is likely in parallel with the increased roles and demands for different types of assistance dogs worldwide [2] as well as increased interest in the benefits of animal interaction for human health and wellbeing [60]. Of 27 studies, 18 (67%) reported outcomes a standardized measure of social health with a total of 18 different standardized measures. Purdue University Libraries, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana, United States of America. Four studies found no effect of having a hearing dog [29] or mobility service dog [39, 41] on the UCLA Loneliness Scale. Many scientists study animal behavior because it sheds light on human beings. However, three studies collapsed analyses across several types of assistance dogs and impairments. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0243302, Editor: Geilson Lima Santana, University of Sao Paulo Medical School, BRAZIL, Received: July 22, 2020; Accepted: November 18, 2020; Published: December 2, 2020. A total of 30% of comparisons made were positive in which having an assistance dog was associated with improved psychosocial functioning among individuals with disabilities. Therefore, detailed descriptions of study populations is critical for helping the field understand for whom assistance dogs are beneficial regarding social, emotional, or psychological health and under what contexts or conditions [74]. First, there may be ceiling effects present whereby individuals are functioning at initially healthy levels of the measured construct (e.g., depression, self-esteem) prior to receiving an assistance dog and thus may not significantly improve on these measures. [45] found higher health-related quality of life among those with a mobility service dog compared to a control group, but not among those with a hearing dog. However, this research is not only widely disparate but, despite its growth, has not been reviewed since 2012. In fact, positive, null, and negative findings are equally instrumental in understanding the complexities of the role that assistance dogs play in the lives of individuals with physical disabilities. Summary of vitality outcomes across studies ordered by sub-category, then by standardized measure. PLOS ONE promises fair, rigorous peer review, Other self-evaluation outcomes assessed with null findings included no differences in self-concept between control groups and those with mobility service dogs [37] or guide dogs [46], no differences in attitude towards a disability 4-months after receiving a mobility service dog [28] or among guide dog users compared to a control group [38], and no differences in flourishing among guide dog users compared to a control group [46]. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited. However, increasingly modern methods allow the 3R principle of reducing, refining and replacing animal experiments to be put into practice . A majority of studies (18/27; 67%) assessed outcomes from mobility service dogs for individuals with physical disabilities. However, it should be noted that this study by Allen & Blascovich has received considerable critique due to incredibly large effect sizes, unrealistic retention and response rates, and severe methodological omissions including a lack of reporting on recruitment, funding, or where assistance dogs were sourced and trained [despite repeated requests for clarification; 64, 65]. Three Blind Mice, See How They Run: A Critique of Behavioral Research In a few instances, they represent the only reasonable approach. In parallel with an increasing amount of research quantifying the therapeutic benefits of companion dogs and therapy dogs on human health and wellbeing [5, 6], there has been an increased focus on quantifying the physical, psychological, and social effects that assistance dogs may have on their handlers [79]. PLOS is a nonprofit 501(c)(3) corporation, #C2354500, based in San Francisco, California, US. The authors found three studies reporting an association between having a seizure alert or response dog and improvements to quality of life and wellbeing, concluding a need for more research. The other five studies found no effect of having a mobility service dog [32], hearing dog [29, 32], or guide dog [38] on life satisfaction using SWLS. Unfortunately, many introductory textbooks don't give the full picture of animal research. However, a recent 2018 review summarized five published quantitative studies describing outcomes from seizure alert and seizure response service dogs. Advancing psychology to benefit society and improve lives. For example, organizations that place assistance dogs may have housing, familial, physical, or even financial requirements for potential recipients that should be subsequently reported in the manuscript to fully define the population. The effects of assistance dogs on psychosocial health and - PLOS However, 2 studies found worse occupational functioning in terms of employment, schooling, or homemaking. Some connect animal testing to racism or sexism, arguing that all living creatures are worthy of respect and that making animals suffer for any reason is morally wrong. Three studies found positive findings on measures of overall psychological wellbeing or psychosocial health, including increased psychological wellbeing 3-months after receiving a mobility, hearing, or medical service dog [35], 6-months after receiving a mobility service dog [14], and better overall psychosocial health in those with a mobility or medical service dog compared to a control group [16]. However, it is of note that several methodological weaknesses of the studies make it difficult to draw any definitive conclusions, including inadequate reporting and a failure to account for moderating or confounding variables.
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